Notes

Outline

Oregon State Bar Proofreading, Editing and Revising Customized & Workplace Training Portland Community College Facilitated by George Knox

Overview of Workshop Modules Week 1 - Proofreading Week 2 - Business Grammar Week 3 – Spelling & Punctuation Week 4 – Organization & Style Week 5 – Revising & Editing

Why Is English Grammar So Difficult? We have a complex language We first learn the grammar informally (as young children before schooling) We have “multiple grammars” Verbal (formal and informal) Written (formal and informal) Our standards change

Why Is English Grammar Important? Meaning Clarity Credibility

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The Parts of Speech Noun – Names a person, place, thing, idea Verb – Expresses action, being or state of being Pronoun – Substitutes for a noun or group of nouns Adjective – Modifies/describes a noun/pronoun Adverb – Modifies/describes a verb, adjective or another adverb Preposition – Introduces a phrase functioning as an adjective or adverb Conjunction – Joins words or groups of words Interjection – Expresses emotion Article – Points to a noun

The Parts of Speech Noun – Names a person, place, thing, idea Verb – Expresses action, being or state of being Pronoun – Substitutes for a noun or group of nouns Adjective – Modifies/describes a noun/pronoun Adverb – Modifies/describes a verb, adjective or another adverb Preposition – Introduces a phrase functioning as an adjective or adverb Conjunction – Joins words or groups of words Interjection – Expresses emotion Article – Points to a noun

Other Important Concepts Subject – Names who or what the sentence is about, simple or complex Predicate (Verb) – Expresses the action/being of the sentence Clause – A group of related words containing a subject and a verb Phrase - A group of related words without a subject-verb relationship

Sentence Structure ALL sentences have a Subject and a Predicate Both Subject and Predicate may be simple or complex (w/ modifiers) Sentences may have more than one subject and more than one predicate. Examples: The product was delivered on time as promised.  The package even included a note from the vendor.  Then and there, the happy manager ordered another shipment.

Common Grammar Problems Clause Confusion Disagreement Between Elements Unclear Meaning

Independent and Dependent Clauses Independent Clause Can stand alone and still make sense Can be used alone as a sentence Can be used as part of a compound sentence w/ other clauses Example: Although many years have passed, I look back fondly on my high school years. Dependent Clause MUST be connected to an independent clause for meaning Function as adverb or adjective Use “subordinating conjunction” (although, because, if, which, who, etc.) Example: Although many years have passed, I look back fondly on my high school years.

Clause Confusion: Run-Ons Problem: Independent clauses joined incorrectly with other clauses. Cause: Missing punctuation and/or conjunctions Incorrect: He ran 10 miles a day for a week preparing for a marathon is not easy! Incorrect: But the hard work paid off he was able to finish the race in the top 100.

Clause Confusion: Run-Ons Solution: Find where the clauses join.  Then decide how you want to use the first independent clause Alone as a complete sentence with end punctuation With another independent clause as a compound sentence, either with a comma and conjunction OR a semicolon With a dependent clause in a complete sentence (adding a subordinate conjunction)

Clause Confusion: Run-Ons Incorrect: He ran 10 miles a day for a week preparing for a marathon is not easy! Correct: He ran 10 miles a day for a week.  Preparing for a marathon is not easy! Incorrect: But the hard work paid off he was able to finish the race in the top 100. Correct: But the hard work paid off as he was able to finish the race in the top 100.

Clause Confusion: Sentence Fragments Problem: Dependent clauses are used alone, without an independent clause  Cause: Dependent clauses do not have a subject and a predicate.  They are not complete sentences. Incorrect: Whenever I try to remember the words to my high school song. Incorrect: Which is why I never try to sing it.

Clause Confusion: Sentence Fragments Solution: Confirm that there is a missing subject or predicate.  Look for a subordinate conjunction.  Then Add or link the dependent clause to an independent clause OR Convert the dependent clause to an independent clause by dropping the subordinate conjunction and adding the needed subject or predicate

Clause Confusion: Sentence Fragments Incorrect: Whenever I try to remember the words to my high school song. Incorrect: Which is why I never try to sing it. Correct: I can’t remember the words to my high school song, which is why I never try to sing it.

Disagreement: Subject - Verb Problem: Confusion over whether the subject is singular or plural, especially when words come between the subject and the verb OR when the verb comes before the subject Cause: Verbs must agree with their subjects in number (singular/plural) and in person (1st/2nd/3rd) Incorrect: The stores opens at 8 am. Incorrect: But the line of customers were blocking traffic. Incorrect: The orders given by the officer was to disperse and to leave the area.

Disagreement: Subject - Verb Solution: Find the subject (not its complement) and the verb.  Change the verb to agree with the subject in number and in person.

Disagreement: Subject - Verb Incorrect: The stores opens at 8 am. Incorrect: But the line of customers were blocking traffic. Incorrect: The orders given by the officer was to disperse and to leave the area. Correct: The stores open at 8 am. Correct: But the line of customers was blocking traffic. Correct: The orders given by the officer were to disperse and to leave the area.

Disagreement: Compound Subjects Problem: Confusion over whether to treat compound subjects as singular or plural. Cause: Different conjunctions result in different treatment.  Also, “either” and “neither” may be used alone a indefinite pronouns rather than conjunctions. Incorrect: Bob, Barney and Boris hopes to leave for vacation soon. Incorrect: Neither Bob nor his brothers wants to wait until June. Incorrect: Everyone plan to go as soon as possible.

Disagreement: Compound Subjects Solution: Find the compound subject If joined with “and”, treat as plural. If joined with “or/nor”, use the subject nearest the noun to determine the agreement. If an indefinite pronoun, treat as singular.

Disagreement: Compound Subjects Incorrect: Bob, Barney and Boris hopes to leave for vacation soon. Incorrect: Neither Bob nor his brothers wants to wait until June. Incorrect: Everyone plan to go as soon as possible. Correct: Bob, Barney and Boris hope to leave for vacation soon. Correct: Neither Bob nor his brothers want to wait until June. Correct: Everyone plans to go as soon as possible.

Disagreement: Pronoun - Antecedent Problem: The pronoun does not match the noun it references (its antecedent) for number or gender;  Sexist language may also be used. Cause: Confusion over whether the antecedent is singular or plural; Assuming an individual or group is one gender or another based on bias. Incorrect: The council members finished its meeting on schedule. Incorrect: The mayor and the press were surprised; he thought it would take longer. Incorrect: Every public servant relishes it when he finishes a project.

Disagreement: Pronoun - Antecedent Solution: Find the antecedent.  Ensure that the pronoun matches for number and gender. Treat indefinite antecedents (e.g. anyone, somebody), generic nouns and collective nouns as singular. Treat compound antecedents connected by “and” as plural. For compound antecedents connected by “or/nor”, make the pronoun agree with the nearer antecedent Use gender neutral pronouns when possible Hint: It may be easier to change the antecedent than the pronoun

Disagreement: Pronoun - Antecedent Incorrect: The council members finished its meeting on schedule. Incorrect: The mayor and the press were surprised; he thought it would take longer. Incorrect: Every public servant relishes it when he finishes a project. Correct: The council members finished their meeting on schedule. Correct: The mayor and the press were surprised; they thought it would take longer. Correct: Public servants relish it when they can finish a project.

Disagreement – Ambiguous Pronouns Problem: It is unclear which antecedent a pronoun references Cause: There are a number of possible causes More than one antecedent is present The pronoun is not close to the antecedent An implied antecedent is referenced “That” or “which” is used to refer to persons Incorrect: Jill had a fight at work and had to meet with her supervisor, Joan, about it.  It made her mad. Incorrect: Joan didn’t know which was to blame, Jill or her co-worker.

Disagreement – Ambiguous Pronouns Solution: Replace the pronoun with a noun or move the pronoun closer to the antecedent.  Use “who”, “whom” or “whose” when referring to persons. Hint: Try moving the pronoun first to avoid repetitive words/phrases (e.g. using a person’s name repeatedly).

Disagreement – Ambiguous Pronouns Incorrect: Jill had a fight at work and had to meet with her supervisor, Joan, about it.  It made her mad. Incorrect: Joan didn’t know which was to blame, Jill or her co-worker. Correct: Jill had a fight at work and had to meet with her supervisor, Joan, about it.  The fight made Joan mad. Correct: Joan didn’t know who was to blame, Jill or her co-worker.

Unclear Meaning “I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.  How he got into my pajamas, I’ll never know. - Groucho Marx

Unclear Meaning: Misplaced Modifiers Problem: Confusion over which word or words are modified or how they are modified Cause: Modifiers are placed too far away from what they modify Incorrect: The first customer rushed past the shop owner beating the other customers to the sale table. Incorrect: The customer almost spent $200.

Unclear Meaning: Misplaced Modifiers Solution: Move the modifier closer to the word or words it modifies. Hint: Sometimes punctuation may also work, by setting off a dependent clause or phrase.

Unclear Meaning: Misplaced Modifiers Incorrect: The first customer rushed past the shop owner beating the other customers to the sale table. Incorrect: The customer almost spent $200. Correct: Rushing past the shop owner, the first customer beat the other customers to the sale table. Correct: The customer spent almost $200.

Unclear Meaning: Dangling Modifiers Problem: Introductory or closing modifying phrases that do not name the subject modified. Cause: The modifier implies the wrong subject is modified. Incorrect: Banging his gavel, the objection was overruled. Incorrect: Flying into the air, the judge knocked his notes off the bench.

Unclear Meaning: Dangling Modifiers Solution: The sentence must be rewritten.  (Moving the modifier will not help.) Name the word/words being modified in the subject of the independent clause OR Place the word/words being modified within the modifying phrase.

Unclear Meaning: Dangling Modifiers Incorrect: Banging his gavel, the objection was overruled. Incorrect: Flying into the air, the judge knocked his notes off the bench. Correct: Banging his gavel, the judge overruled the objection. Correct: The judge’s notes flew into the air as he knocked them off the bench.

Unclear Meaning: Passive Voice Passive voice emphasizes who/what is receiving the action rather than who/what is doing the action. So decide where the emphasis should be on the actor or the receiver.  If the actor is more important, write in active voice.  If the receiver is more important, write in passive voice.

Unclear Meaning: Passive Voice Passive: The results of the election were not tallied correctly by the county. Active: The county did not tally the results of the election correctly. Passive: A new tally by the county is needed. Active: The county needs a new tally.

Proofreading for Grammar (Sentence Level) When proofing and editing, focus on meaning and clarity  Know your grammatical weaknesses, and check those first  Read a sentence aloud to confirm “verbal grammar”  Look for shifts in voice, person and tense  Identify subject, predicate, clauses and phrases within a sentence  Quickly cover the basics: Complete sentences (and ideas) Agreement between elements Clear and appropriate modifying phrases Correct punctuation  Use the writing assistants to find likely errors (but check again for yourself)  Keep a good grammar guide handy