Chad

Geography: Chad is located in north central Africa, bordered by Libya to the north, the Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic and Cameroon to the south, and Niger and Nigeria to the west. Chad has three distinct ecological zones: wet and dry tropical areas in the southern region, semi-arid in the south-central region, and hot arid in the central and northern regions. In the tropical zone between 32 and 48 inches of rain fall annually between May and October; in the central semi-arid zone between 12 and 32 inches of rain fall between June and September.

History: Prehistoric Chad had a much wetter ecology that favored early human settlement. Rock art in the northeastern region has been dated to before the seventh millennium BCE. Since about 500 BCE there have been settlements in the southern region around Lake Chad. Migration and invasion the region have played a significant role in Chad's history. In the early 800s AD Berbers from northern and eastern Africa migrated into present-day Chad and were followed by Arabic-speaking groups. Three historic kingdoms dominated the politics of the region and over time became Islamic: in the central region Kanem-Bornu around Lake Chad, Baguirmi to the southeast, and Ouaddai, to the east. At their peak, they controlled a good part of what is now Chad, as well as parts of Nigeria and Sudan,but none was able to expand far into southern Chad. The prosperity of these historic kingdoms was based on the trans-Saharan trade. Many products were sent north, but the most important of all were slaves. From 1500 to 1900 slave raids were widespread.

In the 1880s and 1890s they fell to the conqueror Rabih Az-zubayr Ibn Fadl Allah from eastern Sudan. Rabih fiercely resisted French colonial take over but was killed and his army defeated in 1900. However, France managed to govern effectively only the non-Muslim south. The arid Muslim north and the areas of the former kingdoms that once dominated were virtually ignored by the French and remained fairly independent of French influence, as long as their inhabitants complied with the ban on slavery and did not interfere. French colonialism had the effect of reversing the traditional dominance of the Islamic northern and central regions. Its presence altered the economy of Chad by undermining the centuries-old trans-Saharan trade, thus impoverishing the people of northern Chad. The inhabitants of the south were able to gain access to western education and to low and mid-level positions in the colonial bureaucracy; this allowed them to gradually dominate the country's politics and economy. The effects of Chad's colonial experience under the French continue to be felt to this day

Chad achieved independence from France in1960. After independence, Chad endured three decades of civil strife, which took on an international dimension, and a war with Libya. When N’Garta Tombalbaye, a southerner backed by the French, became Chad's first president, southerners were able to continue to dominate political life. Tombalbaye, who made only half hearted attempts at regional integration in government and repressed opposition, alienated many, especially northerners and easterners. Opposition to his government coalesced in1966 in the Front de la libération nationale du Tchad (FROLINAT), which received support from Libya. Economic conditions further destabilized the situation as drought ravaged Chad during the early 1970s. In 1975, Tombalbaye was assassinated by his own army, and General Felix Malloum, another southerner, took control. FROLINAT became divided, principally between Hissène Habré and Oueddei Goukouni,both northerners. The segment of FROLINAT led by Hissène Habré joined the Malloum government in 1978; but in 1979 Habré forced Malloum into exile. A brutal wave of ethnic killings swept both the north and the south leaving the country in complete disarray , at which point other African governments intervened. A peace agreement created a coalition government, which quickly broke down. Goukouni seized control Habré and called for the political unification of Chad with Libya. This generated strong international opposition and support for Habré, in particular from France. However, gradually all the rebels began fighting the Libyans. Libya was defeated in 1988 and in 1994 finally relinquished the mineral-rich Aouzou strip, which it had acquired during World War II. Rivalry within the government between different ethnic groups grew as Habré lost the support of many of his key advisors. His one-party regime was marked by widespread atrocities.

In 1990 Idriss Deby, backed by Libya, seized power. In spite of several attempted coups, Deby has managed to stay in power. Political parties were legalized in 1992 and a democratic constitution adopted in 1996. Although talks with political opponents in early 1996 did not go well, Deby won the country’s first multi-party presidential elections in June, 1996. Deby’s party won 63 of 125 seats in the January 1997 legislative elections. However, international observers noted numerous serious irregularities in presidential and legislative election proceedings.

Unrest has continued. Government forces clashed violently with opposition (rebel) forces near Lake Chad and in southern regions of the country. There were large-scale killings of civilians in southern Chad. In1997, the government ended conflict with several southern groups. Since October 1998, there have been skirmishes with government troops in the Tibesti region in the north, resulting in hundreds of civilian, government, and rebel casualties, but little ground won or lost. No active armed opposition has emerged in other parts of Chad, except for a small scale local operation near Moundou, which was quickly and violently suppressed by government forces in late 2000.

In 2001 Deby was re-elected president in a flawed 63% victory for a non-renewable five-year term. Six opposition leaders were arrested (twice), and one opposition party activist was killed following the announcement of election results. However, despite claims of government corruption, ethnic favoritism, and security forces abuses, opposition party and labor union calls for general strikes and more active demonstrations against the government have been unsuccessful. Despite movement toward democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic oligarchy.

Culture: With over 100 languages, three major religions, three climatic zones, and a complex history, the culture is rich and diverse. In the northern third of Chad, in the heart of the Sahara, the Toubou people are in the majority. Herders and nomads, each clan has access to specific wells, pastures, oases. In the middle third of the country, there is a broad Arabic-speaking group which is mostly semi-nomadic and consists of diverse ethnic subgroups such as the Maba people, who have a unique form of social structure based on four age grades. In the far south, another distinct set of cultural practices dominate. About a sixth of the people in the south is Catholic, with the majority practicing traditional beliefs. About 30% of Chad's population is made up of the Sara people from this region.

Economy: Chad has been one of the poorest countries in the world and has relied on international donors. Landlocked Chad’s economic development suffers from its geographic remoteness, drought, political instability, and lack of infrastructure. In 1998 only 2% of Chad's households had access to electricity; there is no railway system. Chad’s economy has been dominated by an agricultural sector which relies on cotton and other crops vulnerable to drought. Only 3% of the land is arable, but about 80% of the population depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock.

Chad, however, is rich in natural and mineral resources. Untapped mineral resources include tungsten, tin, bauxite, gold, iron ore, and titanium. In June 200, in the south in the Doba region, oil exploitation began, led by an international consortium that includes ExxonMobile (40% interest), Malaysia's Petronas (35%), and ChevronTexaco (25%). The Chad-Cameroon 650-mile pipeline was inaugurated in October 2003. When the Doba Oil project is completed in 2004, it is expected to generate between 80-100 million dollars for the government of Chad. There are concerns that oil revenues will be poorly invested or otherwise misused and that the distribution of revenues could renew conflicts between north and south Chad.

Miscellaneous current news: The ongoing troubles in the Darfur region of Sudan continue to put pressure on Chad, with many refugees from the struggle there seeking refuge in Chad. In addition, at least three rebel groups, devoted to unseating Deby and based in Sudan, have been active in recent years. As these notes are being written, in February 2008, rebel forces have managed to invade and occupy portions of N’Djamena, despite resistance from Deby’s forces, apparently supported by the French. The outcome remains uncertain.

According to a January 2008 report by the European Commission, “There are more than 233,000 UNHCR [United Nations High Commission for Refugees] registered refugees from Darfur in eastern Chad and nearly 180,000 internally displaced Chadian people, plus some 48,000 refugees from the Central African Republic in southern Chad. There are also more than 50,000 Chadians who have found refuge in Darfur.”

Last update: Feb. 3, 2008 (Dembrow, K. and M.)