Water Fluoridation Web Cite
Written by : Matt
Curren
What is Water Fluoridation?
Previously, dentistry was a purely reparative craft. However, with the advent of advanced technology, a greater understanding of oral disease, and well-controlled scientific research, dentistry has made the leap to become a scientifically oriented profession. Caries and periodontal disease continue to be the two most significant oral health problems throughout the world today.
Fluoridation Facts :
· Oregon ranks “46” out of 50 states in percentage of its citizenry with access to optimally fluoridated water (22.7%) according to Centers for Disease Control (see Figure 1).
· Portland is the largest city in the U.S. that has not yet mandated fluoridation of its water supply according to National Centers for Fluoridation Policy and Research Fluoridation status of the 50 largest cities in the U.S.
· Oregon ranks “43” out of “50” in access to dental care.
· Water Fluoridation benefits people of all ages, regardless of socio-economic status.
· Every reputable scientific organization reports that water fluoridation is safe.
· The cost to taxpayers would be less than $1.00 per person per year.
· Water fluoridation is the most effective part of a community’s comprehensive dental program
Fluoride is not the only thing necessary for good dental
health, but the protection fluoride gives has been shown to reduce decay
from 20 percent to 60 percent, depending on the source, timing and duration
of the fluoride supplement. Fluoride protection in combination with effective
plaque removal beginning at an early age and a reduced intake of sweets can
contribute to a marked decrease in dental disease for an entire lifetime.
The amount added to the water supply is dependent on the average temperature
or climate of the particular community. Individuals in hotter climates are
likely to drink more water and thus receive more fluoride, so lower amounts
of fluoride in the tap water is adjusted for this possibility. Optimally,
fluoride in water ranges from 0.7 ppm in hotter climates (115 degrees F)
to 1.2 ppm in cooler climates (53 degrees F). Figure 1 shows the percentage
of U.S. state population that have fluoridated public water systems. Previously, dentistry was a purely reparative craft. However, with the advent of advanced technology, a greater understanding of oral disease, and well-controlled scientific research, dentistry has made the leap to become a scientifically oriented profession. Caries and periodontal disease continue to be the two most significant oral health problems throughout the world today.
Fluoridation Facts :
· Oregon ranks “46” out of 50 states in percentage of its citizenry with access to optimally fluoridated water (22.7%) according to Centers for Disease Control (see Figure 1).
· Portland is the largest city in the U.S. that has not yet mandated fluoridation of its water supply according to National Centers for Fluoridation Policy and Research Fluoridation status of the 50 largest cities in the U.S.
· Oregon ranks “43” out of “50” in access to dental care.
· Water Fluoridation benefits people of all ages, regardless of socio-economic status.
· Every reputable scientific organization reports that water fluoridation is safe.
· The cost to taxpayers would be less than $1.00 per person per year.
· Water fluoridation is the most effective part of a community’s comprehensive dental program
Issue
Fluoride is an essential nutrient necessary for proper bone and tooth formation. It is found in trace amounts in most foods and in varying amounts in water. It was discovered over 80 years ago that when swallowed on a daily basis in small amounts, fluoride combines with the forming tooth enamel to make a surface that is more resistant to decay.
Some water supplies have naturally occurring fluoride in them, but not all water systems contain fluoride. Because many areas do not have optimal fluoride levels in the water (approximately 1 part per million), the supplemental use of fluorides has proven extremely effective in the reduction of decay. Some communities have voted to have fluoride put into their community water for this benefit alone.
In fact, fluoridation of community water is the most successful public health initiative ever undertaken in the history of the United States. Yet today, much of the United States communities’ water supplies remain un-fluoridated.
If the most effective and inexpensive way to reduce dental decay in a community is through water fluoridation, why does this subject create a sharp division of opinion and heated debates about its merits and drawbacks?
Purpose
The purpose of this report is to define the background information, history, controversy and research on water fluoridation, along with positive and negative aspects of this controversy.
Problem
Water fluoridation is the most successful public health initiatives in history, yet In spite of the fact that fluoride provides a thoroughly researched benefit of protection against decay (the #1 childhood disease), much public debate surrounds issues such as “mass-medicating” and detrimental health aspects. This resulted in many U.S. city water systems remaining un-fluoridated and many people (both children and adults) suffering with rampant decay. The only way to get water fluoridation of city water is to have it approved by voter referendum.
Author’s Note
While it is beyond the scope of this report to determine and recommend an outcome regarding all the issues concerning water fluoridation, it is important to raise public awareness of the purposes for water fluoridation, dispel the misinformation and myths held by much of the public and give suggestions for individuals to gain knowledge to determine their own thoughts and feelings regarding water fluoridation. This paper will briefly discuss the main issues, dispel several erroneous beliefs and provide websites as educational resources.
Fluoride is an essential nutrient necessary for proper bone and tooth formation. It is found in trace amounts in most foods and in varying amounts in water. It was discovered over 80 years ago that when swallowed on a daily basis in small amounts, fluoride combines with the forming tooth enamel to make a surface that is more resistant to decay.
Some water supplies have naturally occurring fluoride in them, but not all water systems contain fluoride. Because many areas do not have optimal fluoride levels in the water (approximately 1 part per million), the supplemental use of fluorides has proven extremely effective in the reduction of decay. Some communities have voted to have fluoride put into their community water for this benefit alone.
In fact, fluoridation of community water is the most successful public health initiative ever undertaken in the history of the United States. Yet today, much of the United States communities’ water supplies remain un-fluoridated.
If the most effective and inexpensive way to reduce dental decay in a community is through water fluoridation, why does this subject create a sharp division of opinion and heated debates about its merits and drawbacks?
Purpose
The purpose of this report is to define the background information, history, controversy and research on water fluoridation, along with positive and negative aspects of this controversy.
Problem
Water fluoridation is the most successful public health initiatives in history, yet In spite of the fact that fluoride provides a thoroughly researched benefit of protection against decay (the #1 childhood disease), much public debate surrounds issues such as “mass-medicating” and detrimental health aspects. This resulted in many U.S. city water systems remaining un-fluoridated and many people (both children and adults) suffering with rampant decay. The only way to get water fluoridation of city water is to have it approved by voter referendum.
Author’s Note
While it is beyond the scope of this report to determine and recommend an outcome regarding all the issues concerning water fluoridation, it is important to raise public awareness of the purposes for water fluoridation, dispel the misinformation and myths held by much of the public and give suggestions for individuals to gain knowledge to determine their own thoughts and feelings regarding water fluoridation. This paper will briefly discuss the main issues, dispel several erroneous beliefs and provide websites as educational resources.
In order to give an overview of water fluoridation, this report will address:
· Positive aspects
o Reduced decay
o Disease free children
o Less dollars spent on dentistry
· Negative aspects
o Fluorosis
o Physical health issues
· Controversy
o Mass-medicating
o Taking away individuals’ rights to freedom of choice · Oregon’s water fluoridation status
o Where to find out more on the subject
o Topical Oregon fluoridized water system graph
o Endorsing organizations
Works cited
Positive aspects of water fluoridation
Benefits of Water Fluoridation
How does fluoride work?
When you eat anything containing refined sugar or cooked starch, bacteria in the mouth make acid within 30 seconds. This acid strips minerals from the tooth surfaces, eventually creating a hole (cavity). Systemic fluoride, and fluoride used regularly, builds a strong tooth, protects the enamel from acid attacks, reduces the ability of the plaque to produce acid, and repairs tooth enamel in areas that a have already been damaged by acid. Frequent small amounts of fluoride in contact with the tooth surface are the best defense against decay once the teeth have erupted into the mouth.
Is fluoride really necessary?
As long as there is sugar and cooked starch in our diet, we need fluoride to fight the effects. Children are being overwhelmed by sugar-containing products – now even in schools. We’ve known for almost 100 years that fluoride is effective in the prevention of tooth decay.
Is dental disease really a big deal?
The centers for Disease Control (CDC) list dental disease as the #1 preventable chronic disease for children in the U.S. Aside from the obvious
problems associated with dental decay, the Surgeon General Report (2000)
states, “New research is pointing to associations between chronic oral infections
and heart and lung diseases, stroke, and low-birth-weight, premature births.”(12)
The only people who are not benefited by community water fluoridation are
those people who have no teeth.
Why can’t we just use fluoride supplements?
Fluoride pills and drops are available by prescription from a dentist or a doctor at a cost of $40 per year for a child under 14 years of age. Studies show that only 4% of children who are prescribed fluoride pills actually take them. Because of this, fluoride fails to benefit the children who need it most – the children who do not have access to dental care for various reasons. Fluoride delivered in drinking water is by far the most effective and equitable way to strengthen the teeth at any age.
How does fluoride work?
When you eat anything containing refined sugar or cooked starch, bacteria in the mouth make acid within 30 seconds. This acid strips minerals from the tooth surfaces, eventually creating a hole (cavity). Systemic fluoride, and fluoride used regularly, builds a strong tooth, protects the enamel from acid attacks, reduces the ability of the plaque to produce acid, and repairs tooth enamel in areas that a have already been damaged by acid. Frequent small amounts of fluoride in contact with the tooth surface are the best defense against decay once the teeth have erupted into the mouth.
Is fluoride really necessary?
As long as there is sugar and cooked starch in our diet, we need fluoride to fight the effects. Children are being overwhelmed by sugar-containing products – now even in schools. We’ve known for almost 100 years that fluoride is effective in the prevention of tooth decay.
Is dental disease really a big deal?
The centers for Disease Control (CDC) list dental disease as the #1 preventable chronic disease for children in the U.S. Aside from the obvious
problems associated with dental decay, the Surgeon General Report (2000)
states, “New research is pointing to associations between chronic oral infections
and heart and lung diseases, stroke, and low-birth-weight, premature births.”(12)
The only people who are not benefited by community water fluoridation are
those people who have no teeth.Why can’t we just use fluoride supplements?
Fluoride pills and drops are available by prescription from a dentist or a doctor at a cost of $40 per year for a child under 14 years of age. Studies show that only 4% of children who are prescribed fluoride pills actually take them. Because of this, fluoride fails to benefit the children who need it most – the children who do not have access to dental care for various reasons. Fluoride delivered in drinking water is by far the most effective and equitable way to strengthen the teeth at any age.
Consider that community water fluoridation (4):
· Is very cost-effective: costs range from $0.12 to $1.16 per individual per year.
· Has resulted in 20-30% reduction in adult decay
· Has resulted in 15-60% reduction in children’s decay
· Results in 18 - 40% less dental decay in persons of all ages
· Is available to everyone regardless of income or access to dental care
· Is very cost-effective: costs range from $0.12 to $1.16 per individual per year.
· Has resulted in 20-30% reduction in adult decay
· Has resulted in 15-60% reduction in children’s decay
· Results in 18 - 40% less dental decay in persons of all ages
· Is available to everyone regardless of income or access to dental care
Negative Aspects of Water Fluoridation
Concerns Over Water Fluoridation
Dental Fluorosis
Fluorosis is caused by the ingestion of a level of fluoride that is above
the optimum level, during the years when the teeth are developing.
Fluorosis generally manifests itself as barely discernable white, opaque spots
and is only an esthetic concern. Very high levels of fluoride - levels
that are sometimes found in naturally fluoridated water - may produce brown
or pitted enamel (see Figure 2). Since all water contains some levels
of fluoride, the EPA sets certain standards for optimum fluoride content.
The levels of fluoride may be increased or decreased to meet with the optimum
standards for good dental health. Photos (such as in Figure 2) have resulted
from unregulated water sources that contain as much as 20 times the amount
of fluoride provided through public water
systems (9).
Toothpastes contain high levels of fluoride (1000 - 1500 ppm). Unfortunately children often swallow toothpaste, even though toothpaste is meant specifically for topical application. This habit can result in fluorosis. Parents must be informed that young children should use only a “smear” of toothpaste on their toothbrush, in case of incidental ingestion.
Dental Fluorosis
Fluorosis is caused by the ingestion of a level of fluoride that is above
the optimum level, during the years when the teeth are developing.
Fluorosis generally manifests itself as barely discernable white, opaque spots
and is only an esthetic concern. Very high levels of fluoride - levels
that are sometimes found in naturally fluoridated water - may produce brown
or pitted enamel (see Figure 2). Since all water contains some levels
of fluoride, the EPA sets certain standards for optimum fluoride content.
The levels of fluoride may be increased or decreased to meet with the optimum
standards for good dental health. Photos (such as in Figure 2) have resulted
from unregulated water sources that contain as much as 20 times the amount
of fluoride provided through public water
systems (9).Toothpastes contain high levels of fluoride (1000 - 1500 ppm). Unfortunately children often swallow toothpaste, even though toothpaste is meant specifically for topical application. This habit can result in fluorosis. Parents must be informed that young children should use only a “smear” of toothpaste on their toothbrush, in case of incidental ingestion.
Fluoride tablets, which are recommended in areas where
the water in not fluoridated, cause a slight spike in blood fluoride levels.
This spike may cause a mild fluorosis, although the resultant teeth are definitely
more resistant to decay. Once again, strong teeth are the result of
the optimum level of fluoride intake, and like all prescription medications,
they should be kept away from free access by children and administered by
adults according to instructions.
Fluorosis only occurs when the fluoride levels exceed the
optimum level. Public water fluoridation delivers very low levels of
fluoride on a regular basis, and some light fluorosis may occur. However,
slight fluorosis, or sometimes referred to as “snow-capping” of teeth, render
the teeth extremely strong and decay-resistant.
Even communities with water sources whose fluoride content is above the recommended 1.0 ppm, have began filtering their water to reduce the amount of fluoride that arrives at homes through the tap water so that it is at the optimal level.
Bone Deformities – Skeletal Fluorosis
Fluoride has an affinity for teeth and bones, as does calcium, and therefore has often been suspect in bone defects. In areas where the fluoride levels in the water are naturally very high (8 ppm - 20 ppm for example) and people have ingested these high levels of fluoride for decades, there is indeed
evidence of skeletal deformities or bone brittleness (see Figure 4).
Even communities with water sources whose fluoride content is above the recommended 1.0 ppm, have began filtering their water to reduce the amount of fluoride that arrives at homes through the tap water so that it is at the optimal level.
Bone Deformities – Skeletal Fluorosis
Fluoride has an affinity for teeth and bones, as does calcium, and therefore has often been suspect in bone defects. In areas where the fluoride levels in the water are naturally very high (8 ppm - 20 ppm for example) and people have ingested these high levels of fluoride for decades, there is indeed
evidence of skeletal deformities or bone brittleness (see Figure 4).
After ingestion of fluoride, such as drinking a glass of
optimally fluoridated water, the majority of the fluoride is absorbed into
the blood stream. The fluoride levels quickly reach a peak concentration
and then rapidly decline, usually within three to six hours. This decline
is due to the uptake of fluoride by hard tissue, such as bones and teeth,
and the efficient removal of fluoride by the kidneys. The amount of fluoride
taken up by bone and retained in the body is inversely related to age. More
fluoride is retained in young bones than in the bones of older adults.
According to generally accepted scientific knowledge, the
ingestion of optimally fluoridated water does not have an adverse effect
on bone health. Evidence of advanced skeletal fluorosis, or crippling skeletal
fluorosis, “was not seen in communities in the United States where water
supplies contained up to 20 ppm (natural levels of fluoride).” Crippling skeletal
fluorosis is extremely rare in the United States and is not associated with
optimally fluoridated water. (10) The pictures frequently used (such as Figure
3) are usually of individuals from Third World Countries who consumed well
water containing high amounts of fluoride for years.
Once again, the level of intake makes all the difference. In the United States, certain water systems that contain higher levels of fluoride are presently filtered to reduce those quantities to fall within the recommended optimal levels. Research is currently being conducted on the beneficial effects of optimum levels of fluoride to increase bone density and strength.
Does fluoridated water increase the lead levels in children?
Scientific studies that have allegedly shown elevated lead levels in children living in fluoridated water areas have been reviewed by appropriate health agencies. They do not, in most cases, meet strict scientific research guidelines, and they do not show a “cause & effect” relationship between fluoride and elevated lead levels in children. (9)
Does Fluoride cause Mental Retardation or Cancer?
Once again, the level of intake makes all the difference. In the United States, certain water systems that contain higher levels of fluoride are presently filtered to reduce those quantities to fall within the recommended optimal levels. Research is currently being conducted on the beneficial effects of optimum levels of fluoride to increase bone density and strength.
Does fluoridated water increase the lead levels in children?
Scientific studies that have allegedly shown elevated lead levels in children living in fluoridated water areas have been reviewed by appropriate health agencies. They do not, in most cases, meet strict scientific research guidelines, and they do not show a “cause & effect” relationship between fluoride and elevated lead levels in children. (9)
Does Fluoride cause Mental Retardation or Cancer?
Although research done in China in 2002 noted that more
than optimal amounts of fluoride in the water “may affect the development
of children’s intelligence” (11), it would also be important to note that
the IQ differences reported in these children (ages 8-13) was 54-126 for
high fluoride area versus 60-128 for low fluoride area. (How much difference
in intelligence is 2 IQ points?) Also important to note, further reading of
the research shows the daily levels of fluoride intake were as much as 500
times the recommended <1.0ppm.
Even the research, which claims that fluoride causes cancer,
is not conclusive and its direct correlation is inconclusive (13). But in
a systematic research evaluation of the effects of water fluoridation on
the general public, no evidence was found to support claims that fluoride
causes cancer, there is no clear association of [bone] fractures and fluoride
and no clear association between water fluoridation and overall cancer incidence
and mortality. However, it did support findings of a significant reduction
in decay for the general public, reduces the inequalities in dental health
across social classes in 5-12 year olds. (13)
Are we at risk of consuming too much fluoride through foods, beverages, AND water?
The total intake of fluoride from air, water and food in an optimally fluoridated community in the United States does not pose significant health risks (4). Children living in a community with water fluoridation get a portion of their daily fluoride intake from fluoridated water and a portion from dietary sources, which would include food and other beverages. When considering water fluoridation, an individual must consume one liter of water fluoridated at 1 part per million (1 ppm) to receive 1 milligram (1 mg) of fluoride. Children under six years of age would consume, on average, less than 0.5mg of fluoride a day from drinking optimally fluoridated water (at 1 ppm). Studies of fluoride intake from the diet including foods, beverages and water indicate the fluoride ingestion from these sources has remained relatively constant for over half a century and therefore, is not likely to be associated with an observed increase in dental fluorosis.
Can Fluoride Harm the Environment?
Are we at risk of consuming too much fluoride through foods, beverages, AND water?
The total intake of fluoride from air, water and food in an optimally fluoridated community in the United States does not pose significant health risks (4). Children living in a community with water fluoridation get a portion of their daily fluoride intake from fluoridated water and a portion from dietary sources, which would include food and other beverages. When considering water fluoridation, an individual must consume one liter of water fluoridated at 1 part per million (1 ppm) to receive 1 milligram (1 mg) of fluoride. Children under six years of age would consume, on average, less than 0.5mg of fluoride a day from drinking optimally fluoridated water (at 1 ppm). Studies of fluoride intake from the diet including foods, beverages and water indicate the fluoride ingestion from these sources has remained relatively constant for over half a century and therefore, is not likely to be associated with an observed increase in dental fluorosis.
Can Fluoride Harm the Environment?
According to environmental analysis, there’s virtually no
possibility of environmental impact, because the amount of fluoride in optimally
fluoridated water is .7 - 1.2 ppm, which is actually lower than the natural
marine (seawater) background level of 1.4 ppm.
Anti-fluoridationists often refer to a study conducted on the effects of fluoride on fish in the Columbia River in Oregon - the results being that the fish failed to migrate properly. However, that specific study was conducted on fish that were exposed to toxic waste dumped by an aluminum smelting plant - certainly not a pertinent comparison to the levels of fluoride recommended for public water fluoridation.
An environmental analysis conducted in Tacoma, Washington, in August of 2002 confirmed that fluoride “has no adverse effects on the environment. (6) Tacoma proceeded to fluoridate its water in October of 2002.
Myths and Misinformation
Many people are not aware of what water fluoridation is or why we would want it. They have no idea of the benefits of fluoride and are misled by inf
ormation based on hearsay, “old wives’ tales,” or sensationalistic a
nd unfounded information on the internet.
Additionally, photos that are used repeatedly at anti-fluoride sites can add visual impact and appeal to emotions instead of dealing with facts. Figures 4 and 5 are examples of two that appear repeatedly at different sites. Many times, such statements are accompanied by pictures, photos, and ads to increase their impact.
Anti-fluoridationists often refer to a study conducted on the effects of fluoride on fish in the Columbia River in Oregon - the results being that the fish failed to migrate properly. However, that specific study was conducted on fish that were exposed to toxic waste dumped by an aluminum smelting plant - certainly not a pertinent comparison to the levels of fluoride recommended for public water fluoridation.
An environmental analysis conducted in Tacoma, Washington, in August of 2002 confirmed that fluoride “has no adverse effects on the environment. (6) Tacoma proceeded to fluoridate its water in October of 2002.
Myths and Misinformation
Many people are not aware of what water fluoridation is or why we would want it. They have no idea of the benefits of fluoride and are misled by inf
ormation based on hearsay, “old wives’ tales,” or sensationalistic a
nd unfounded information on the internet.Additionally, photos that are used repeatedly at anti-fluoride sites can add visual impact and appeal to emotions instead of dealing with facts. Figures 4 and 5 are examples of two that appear repeatedly at different sites. Many times, such statements are accompanied by pictures, photos, and ads to increase their impact.
Such ads are those in Figure 8 and 9. Many times
the statements are generalizations. Always, there is a fraction of truth
in the statements.
Conflicting information on the internet feeds the confusion. It
is no wonder that people are so misinformed, especially with websites claiming
fluoridation is part of a governmental conspiracy and cover-up (14), Hitler
used water fluoridation to sterilize and sedate of millions of Jews during
the Holocaust (15), Who Benefits Most?
Conclusion
While many compelling articles and documentations exist for both sides, the balanced, weighted research, utilizing all components of thorough scientific study supports the evidence in favor of water fluoridation. Yet it behooves the individual to come to his or her own educated conclusions about this controversial subject. What to keep in mind when evaluating the evidence is:
1. What is the source of this information (who is presenting it and what credentials for scientific support do they have?)?
2. Do they support their claims with sound, scientifically balanced research?
3. Are their findings conclusive? Is there a direct correlation between fluoride and the affects they claim?
4. Do you trust the information they are
giving you? Is it presented in a factual process and does it come to a logical
conclusion? Do they use sensationalism in any shape or form or try to appeal
to your emotions?
Where can I find out more about water fluoridation?
When looking for information on any subject. Utilize founded, reputable sources. Be wary on websites without the research to back up their claims and read the research carefully: results from research can be interpreted many different ways. Ask your dentist or someone else you trust to know about fluoride. Then you decide and use your power to vote. Your city cannot put fluoride in your water without a majority vote. Thousands of communities in the U.S. have made the decision to fluoridate their water supply based on overwhelming information that fluoride is beneficial to the dental health of most citizens and is not harmful to the ordinary person. You may find these few websites a good place to start for more information on community water fluoridation:
· www.ada.org
· www.ama-assn.org
· www.cdc.gov
· www.who.int
Map of Oregon’s Water Systems with Natural Fluoride
and Adjusted Fluoride (found at:
http://www.dhs.state.or.us/publichealth/dental/images/fluormap.gif
)
Fluoridation Endorsing Organizations in the Portland
Metro Area – November 2004
Endorsing Organizations
Since the inception of water fluoridation, there have been unsubstantiated claims that water fluoridation causes a variety of health problems - cancer, Downs Syndrome, Alzheimer’s, bone disease, kidney problems, allergic reactions, etc. To ensure the public that these claims are false, the following are a few of the organizations that have publicly endorsed water fluoridation (2004):
Local Organizations
Oregon Department of Human Services
OHSU Doernbecher Children’s Hospital
Oregon Pediatric Society
Oregon Academy of Family Physicians
OHSU School of Dentistry
Oregon Dental Foundation
Center for Health Research
Oregon Public Health Association
Northwest Health Foundation
Medical Society of Metropolitan Portland
The Oregon Chapter of the American College of Emergency Physicians
Association of Oregon Public Health Nurse Supervisors
American College of Nurse-Midwives, Oregon Chapter
Oregon Society of Health-System Pharmacists
Oregon Dietetic Association
ODS Health Plans
City Club of Portland
Community Action Organization Oregon Parent Teacher Association
YWCA of Greater Portland
West District Caring Community
Multnomah County Health Department
Multnomah Education Service District
Legacy Health System
Providence Health System
Regence BlueCross BlueShield of Oregon
Kaiser Permanente Foundation Health Plan
Northwest Permanente, PC (Kaiser physicians)
Permanente Dental Associates (Kaiser dentists)
Willamette Dental Group, PC
Division of Allied Health at Mt. Hood Community College
The Neighborhood Health Clinics, Inc.
Virginia Garcia Memorial Dental Clinic
Albina Head Start
Oregon Head Start
Capitol Dental Care, Inc.
Oregon Health Plan (OHP) Medical Directors Group
OHP Project Prevention
OHP Early Childhood Cavities Prevention Coalition
Oregon Dental Association
Oregon Dental Hygienists’ Association
Oregon Dental Assistants AssociationHead Start
Multnomah County Dental Society
Washington County Dental Society
Portland Dental Hygienists’ Association
Mt. Hood Dental Hygienists’ Component
Washington County Dental Hygienists’ Component
Mt. Hood Community College Dental Hygiene Program
Portland Community College/Dental Sciences Department
National and International Organizations
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
National Institutes of Health
National Health Council
U.S. Public Health Service
World Health Organization
American Medical Association
British Medical Association
Canadian Medical Association
American Nurses’ Association
American Academy of Pediatrics
American Academy of Family Practice
American Public Health Association
American Dietetic Association
American Society of Clinical Nutrition
American Society for Nutritional Sciences
American Council on Science and Health
American School Health Association
National Congress of Parents and Teachers
National Parent Teachers’ Association
Association of State and Territorial Health Officials
Centers for Service in the Public Interest
Institute of Medicine
National Academy of Science
Indian Health Service
Head Start Bureau and Early Head Start
American Osteopathic Association
National Cancer Institute
American Cancer Society
National Downs Syndrome Society
American Osteopathic Association
National Kidney Foundation
American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology
National Council against Health Fraud
European Organizations for Caries Research
International Association for Dental Research
American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry
American Society of Dentistry for Children
American Dental Association
American Dental Hygienists’ Association
British Dental Association
Canadian Dental Association
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16. “Bayer = IG Farben Nazi Chemical Conglomerate,” Moth, August 2004. Retrieved from website http://portland.indymedia.org/en/2004/04/285182.shtml
12. “Fluoridation of Drinking Water: A Systematic Review of Its Efficacy and Safety.” York Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, Retreived from website http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/crd/summary.pdf
13. “Evaluation of the National Toxicology Program (NTP) Cancer Bioassay on Sodium Fluoride,” Calabrese E, PhD., 1991 Jun, commissioned by the East Bay Municipal Utility District, Summary by John R. Lee, M.D. Retrieved from website http://www.fluoridation.com/cancer.htm#Cohn%20PD,%20...The%20Association%20Of%20Drinking%20Water%20Fluoridation%20And%20The%20Incidence%20of%20Osteosarcoma.
14. “Fluoride, Teeth and the Atomic Bomb,” Griffiths and Bryson. Retrieved from website http://www.holisticmed.com/fluoride/toxic.html.
15. “Fluoride and Stupidity,” David Icke’s Medical Archives, website: http://www.davidicke.net/medicalarchives/badmed/stupidflouride.html
16. “Bayer = IG Farben Nazi Chemical Conglomerate,” Moth, August 2004. Retrieved from website http://portland.indymedia.org/en/2004/04/285182.shtml
This cite, was written solely as an informative piece of
information for a technical writing 227 class @ Portland Community College
.
Written by: Matt Curren Last modified: 12/05/04
Written by: Matt Curren Last modified: 12/05/04